Digital Nutritionists: Media Literacy in Primary Schools

Introduction

This paper discusses the rationales, design principles, and implementation details of a media literacy project targeting primary students in Hong Kong. Given the constraints in time, expertise, and funding, it has always been challenging to conduct media education in this city. Despite calls for its formal introduction in school curriculum, there has been little progress in the past three decades. While there are increasing awareness and efforts in the field of information literacy in recent years, its actual implementation varies among schools; the lack, if not absence, of media education in primary schools is particularly remarkable. Titled “Digital Nutritionists”, a one-hour workshop is tailor-made for primary schools in Hong Kong, with the intention of introducing key concepts regarding media use to children aged between 9 and 11 through an experiential and active learning approach. 

Before going into details about the activities, we will first examine some general issues regarding media literacy in primary education. It will be followed by an overview of media education in Hong Kong. This updated review will lead us to consider a few underlying principles guiding our design, of which delivery in three pilot schools will be reported with on-site examples and discussion. 

Teaching media to primary students  

When it comes to “good education”, few will dispute the impressions that “the more the better” and “the earlier the better”; the importance and urgency of media literacy has thus been debated for long. Being associated with a wide range of desirable attributes, such as critical thinking, creativity, and civic participation, media literacy is generally recognised as a core competence and an essential life skill. In this vein, it makes perfect sense to start teaching media to children in primary schools. Despite the rhetoric of having better education at an earlier age, past practices and studies have cautioned us with a few practical issues. 

To begin with, what should be taught to primary schoolchildren? It appears that it does not only vary among countries which have different education policies and cultural assumptions; even within the same country, there are numerous and scattered initiatives, as in the case of Spain (Lozano-Monterrubio et al., 2024). This then results in practices emphasising different priorities, aiming at teaching diverse knowledge and skills. In Australia, for example, media education is conducted in media arts classroom. Instead of mastering a set of competences, students are expected to understand six key concepts, namely technologies, representations, institutions, audiences, languages, and relationships (Levido, 2024). It was found that technologies, when taught, were mostly about application and were not addressed as part of the broader media landscape (Levido, 2024), which suggests that the same concept “technologies” is interpreted differently by teachers and researchers in the study. The former stressed on its use, while the latter prioritised a more abstract understanding of its roles in the changing media ecology. Similar concerns are also found in discussion about advertising literacy (Nelson, 2015), social media literacy (Hasanli, 2023), and media ecology (Ptaszek, 2020), to name a few. Nelson (2015), for example, asserted that persuasion knowledge was a “broader concept”, of which teaching would enhance understanding about persuasion attempts in advertising.  

Again, it is hard to refute the advantages of teaching broader concepts, which not only implies a deeper understanding of knowledge but it also sounds more theoretical. The question is, how “theoretical” should it be when the target audiences are primary students? Consider news literacy as an example. What kinds of knowledge are relevant and comprehensible for children who might not yet be consuming news? Campos (2020) listed the news literacy key concepts and skills for children aged between 7 and 10, which included “introduction to journalism”, “theory and ethics”, “history”, “news construction analysis”, “production skills”, “technical skills”, and “research skills” (p.178). Defined as the competences about the news for elementary school children, such concepts and skills could be relevant but are they readily comprehensible to children?

The burden is inevitably placed on teachers who have to help children make sense of the complexities in today’s media. As noted by Moore (2013), teachers need to feel that they are in control so that they can maintain smoothness and tranquillity in classrooms. Teaching about news not only poses considerable uncertainties and ambiguities in class but it also generates uncomfortable feelings when it comes to ideological conflicts. To alleviate such stress, it might help to take a news production approach. Van Helvoort and Hermans (2020) reviewed 16 studies about interventions combating fake news and argued that the news making approach was the most effective kind. Although this is found to be a good pedagogical approach, given that media production demands more planning and logistical support, it is likely to create a different set of uncertainties for teachers.  

It is noteworthy that teachers come to class with their own prior knowledge and values. Mertala and Salomaa (2020) showed how teachers’ perceptions about digital natives shaped their teaching practices. In short, both classroom culture and teachers’ beliefs affect the actual implementation of media literacy classes. Teachers certainly need in-service training (Sur et al., 2014), yet how much is sufficient? Most teachers are not trained to be media experts in the first place. Some of the inherent contradictions between school culture and media culture are also causing constant tensions (Chu, 2009). Apart from fixed knowledge and skills, a reflective and critical stance about media use and media preferences is also crucial. Considering the scope and time commitment, it is unrealistic to expect that all media teachers are fully trained and equipped. After all, what kinds of training can cover all possible aspects in media education, when the media are undergoing never-ending changes?  

In view of these practical constraints, it is not uncommon to see various education interventions initiated by outside organisations. In Spain, for example, the Learn to Check Association is a knowledge transfer initiative led by university teachers and is specialised in media and information literacy. The organisation designed “escape rooms” to engage primary and secondary school students to understand disinformation (Lozano-Monterrubio et al., 2024). Similar gamified approach was explored by Literat et al. (2020) in teaching about news literacy. How video games and films can be used to develop skills in digital contexts has also generated research attention (Checa-Romero, 2016). While these trends suggest innovative directions for media literacy interventions, there are also implications for funding support and continuous involvements of experts. Tomé and De Abreu (2022) have eloquently demonstrated how to facilitate civic and social participation through their Digital Citizenship Academy, which lasted three years and reached 500 children aged from 3 to 10. In view of the heavy investment of time and labour, it is uncertain how it can be sustainable in the long run without the support from teachers and schools.

To summarise, while few would disagree with the observation that primary students need to acquire media literacy as early as possible, little consensus has been reached about the scope, approaches, level of difficulty, teachers’ training, and resources. Notwithstanding, numerous individuals and organisations have experimented with different programmes throughout the years and pushed the limits as much as possible. In spite of all the admirable efforts, it is hard to find compelling evidence for their effects (c.f. Sur et al., 2014; Ramírez & González, 2016). If it does not make a big difference, why should schools spend time on it? Here is a familiar dilemma: everybody says media literacy is essential but no one knows what really works. Questions abound regarding what to teach, how to teach, and who to teach; media literacy education is always confronted with many difficulties. This brief overview suggests that media literacy education targeting primary students is on an even more difficult path. 

Media Literacy in Hong Kong 

In addition to these common problems, Hong Kong, like other societies, has its own unique difficulties. As a researcher and practitioner of media education, I have had first-hand experience of witnessing the clashes between media culture and school culture (Chu, 2003), observing how media education classes were made possible as extracurricular activities (Chu, 2009), and running a social enterprise specialised in promoting media and information literacy (Chu, 2022).

In a nutshell, the current media literacy education has not yet been formally incorporated in the education system. Nonetheless, there have been calls for introducing media knowledge to the formal curriculum for decades. Such calls for a more proactive approach often came along with particular media scandals, crises, or emergent phenomena that were considered problematic. In the early 2000s, for example, grave concerns were expressed over sexual and violent content in the media where media literacy was seen as a cure to these ills. In the late 2010s, disinformation has caught widespread attention and media literacy was proposed to fight fake news. In view of the rise of AI in the past few years, educators are once again turning to media and information literacy for solutions. In response, the education authorities have formulated curriculum guidelines (Education Bureau, 2024a) and provided some curriculum resources (Education Bureau, 2024b), without making it a compulsory subject. The emphasis is now placed predominantly on “information literacy”, while the term “media literacy”, which is kept and has entered common usage, remains more like a vision, if not a slogan. Relevant interventions and initiatives certainly exist, but are of a sporadic nature.

Beyond formal schooling, however, it is noteworthy that media literacy education has long been taken up by the non-governmental sector, ranging from media, youth, and religious organisations (Chu & Lee, 2013). They design intervention projects featuring themes like junior reporters, fake news workshops, and media ethics and often take the projects directly to schools or invite youth to participate through open recruitment. In other words, it would be inaccurate to say that students in Hong Kong have no exposure to media literacy education; it nonetheless hinges on the decisions of different schools. What students from different schools will eventually learn is hardly standardised, depending on the agendas of different service providers. 

In 2017, Mars Media Academy was founded. It is a social enterprise enabled by a knowledge transfer funding in the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Unlike the aforementioned non-governmental organisations, whose funding sources are often more stable and reliable, a social enterprise has to strike a delicate balance between desirable social motives and a reasonable profit. To ensure the latter, it is crucial to secure enough clients. As the founder, I have detailed the funding difficulties and discussed the business strategy elsewhere (Chu, 2022). In brief, it was found that schools, as potential clients, are looking for projects that can raise awareness within a short period of time. Instead of a sustained approach, a one-off experience is preferred. In order to reach out to the target audiences and to make the business viable, Mars Media Academy has been designing programmes for secondary students in the past seven years. With programmes focusing on experiential learning, historical perspectives, ethical considerations, and mindfulness, we have reached more than 3,000 secondary students up to 2022. 

A Practical Problem: “Making It Sell”

As shown in the above review, media literacy in primary schools has always been a practical problem. Some issues are generally and commonly experienced across different societies, while some issues are more cultural-specific. When the social enterprise decided to expand its service to meet the media literacy needs of primary students in 2023, it had to answer this very practical problem with a “product” that would address these issues so that schools would agree to “buy” it for their students. 

This process of “product design” resembles a lot from action research commonly employed in educational studies. In a classic introduction about action research, Corey (1954) referred to it as “research undertaken by practitioners in order that they may improve their practices. The people who actually teach children or supervise teachers or administer school systems attempt to solve their practical problems by using the methods of science” (p.46). Unlike other more traditional types of educational research, researchers engaging in action research are less interested in making generalisations. Instead, they are concerned about improving the practices in the inquiry process, which Stringer et al. (2010) described as a cycle, during which researchers act, look, and think: these three steps inform and enrich one another. Guided by previous experience and initial hypotheses, researchers plan for a learning activity, observe students’ responses, reflect on the activity, and eventually make changes for the better. Action research is an ongoing process and its ultimate aim is to improve the educational practice in a systematic and scientific manner. 

The design and the implementation of “Digital Nutritionists” is, to a large extent, underlined by the essence of action research. Initial hypotheses were informed by the rich experience of the researcher cum practitioner. To reiterate, it is found that to make “media literacy intervention” sell in Hong Kong, it is essential to keep it short, where a one-off approach is preferred. Given the time constraints, it seems unrealistic to teach about any substantial knowledge and skills. In this vein, teaching “broader concepts” is actually a more feasible option. Teachers and principals often talk about “raising awareness about media”; while this clearly falls into the category of “broader concepts”, it is dubious what kinds of awareness primary students need most urgently in the first place, and what prior knowledge they have in the second. Both questions are pertinent to the issues regarding relevance and comprehensibility. Ideally, we want to design a learning experience that addresses a broader concept about media and has an appropriate level of difficulty. It cannot take up too much time or resources; and it should be relevant and comprehensible to the target students. In view of sustainability, it will be even more ideal if teachers can replicate and conduct the same programme to other students in the long run. 

These initial hypotheses have guided the design of a one-hour workshop customised for primary students in Hong Kong. The following sections will describe the overall flow, learning materials, and students’ samples. The workshop has been run in three pilot schools from June 2023 to June 2024. The three primary schools were called School A (using English as medium of instruction), School B, and School C (both using Chinese as medium of instruction). Table 1 summarises the three visits. The content presented herein is a result of the ongoing observation and reflection in the action research cycle.

Initial Hypotheses: Prior Knowledge, Media Consumption, and Media Convergence

Our targets are students of upper primary grades, who are generally aged between 9 and 11. In Hong Kong, primary students have to take a subject called “General Studies”, which covers a wide range of issues and topics. “Health and Living” is one of the six strands in the central curriculum (Curriculum Development Council, 2017). Most upper primary students are familiar with the idea of healthy food consumption which is often illustrated with the use of a “food pyramid” (Figure 1).

We believe this prior knowledge serves as a relevant and useful starting point for us to introduce media-related concepts to students. Serrano-Puche (2017) has presented a proposal for dealing with information overload. Media, as an ecosystem, are increasingly filled with information, entertainment, and many other forms of content. The problem of overabundance is further complicated by the speed of online interaction, the quest for attention, the multiplicity of screens, and the increase of sociality in consumption (Serrano-Puche, 2017, p. 205). Concerns about information overload are nothing new. In addition to it, Batista and Marques (2017) argued that the high volume of information exchanges between people also leads to communication overload. Some see such excesses as a form of “obesity”. Brabazon (2013) advocated for digital dieting in view of information obesity, in the hope of attaining intellectual fitness in the long run. The use of food analogy prompts one to ask what constitutes a normal and healthy media diet. The food pyramid puts food into different categories and promotes varying portions. It conveys clear messages regarding both the types and amount of food. Although the interpretation of the food pyramid is not without doubts and critics, and is understandably tricky and difficult to define what one means by a “healthy media diet”, the concepts here provide us with a relatively simple and common ground for our target audiences. 

Media consumption of children and youth are concerning to teachers and parents. Surveys conducted by local universities and youth organisations found that 22.4% of young people surveyed were online for more than seven hours a day. Gaming was particularly alarming as 31.8% stated that they had experience of playing online games for five consecutive hours. In the most extreme instance, the respondent said that they could play for 60 hours. Overall, 12.6% of youth showed signs of internet game addiction (Hong Kong College of Technology, 2023, July 10; Hong Kong Playground Association, 2023).

In addition to binge gaming, there are also worries about binge watching on streaming platforms, excessive social media use due to FOMO (fear of missing out), problematic online conducts such as stalking or cyberbullying, risky contacts with strangers, etc., with most perceived dangers and problems now happen in the digital space. All forms of media content converge in the online environment and can be readily accessed through mobile phones, tablets, and personal computers. Media convergence continues to blur and dissolve various kinds of boundaries; the past distinctions about media functions, namely to inform, to educate, and to entertain, are becoming less clear. When everything comes together on the same platform, even though they are serving different functions, they look increasingly similar. Using the food analogy, it is like one is fed with many different types of food mixed in one bowl, in unknown portions. 

This is how the idea of “Digital Nutritionist” was developed: it considered the prior knowledge of our target participants and the common concerns over problematic media consumption shared by other stakeholders, and was then put in the wider context of media convergence. 

Design and Implementation

Setting the Stage

Mars Media Academy believes in experiential and active learning. When designing learning activities, it tries to create opportunities for learners to gain direct experience so that they can have a deeper understanding and reflection. This task becomes more challenging when the time given is short, and the number of participants is high, as indicated in Table 1. In short, we needed a design that would enable a hundred students to take an active role in participation within an hour. 

The workshops in the three pilot schools were conducted in their school assembly halls. Students were seated in rows, as indicated in Figure 2.

We started the workshop by welcoming everybody in their new role as “Digital Nutritionists”. By setting the stage right away, we wanted to arouse students’ interest with the two keywords at stake. The first slide of the presentation came up: the food pyramid (Figure 1) was shown. Students were asked if they knew what it was. Someone in the audience shouted out the word “nutrition”. There was a brief yet informative exchange about their prior knowledge about the “food pyramid” and its key features. Students raised their hands enthusiastically to answer questions. The following scenario happened in all three pilot schools:

Facilitator: What are in the top layer of the pyramid? 

Students: (reading aloud from the slide in their seats together) Fat, oil, salt, and sugar.

Facilitator: Thank you. Why is it so? Anyone?

(many raised their hands and waited to be asked to speak)

Facilitator: (pointing at one student) Would you please? 

Student: Because like salt, it is high in sodium. It is not healthy. 

Facilitator: Thank you. If it is not healthy, should we stop eating it altogether?

(silence fell. students looked unsure) 

Facilitator: How about eating it moderately instead? 

(students nodded in agreement)

At this point, the idea of “reasonable portion of food consumption” was introduced. Students were reminded that the food pyramid informed us about different food categories and the right amount of intake. The warm-up chat took five minutes. The second and third slides showed icons of legacy media and social media. Students were asked to name them (Figure 3). Another round of exchange took place. Students were asked to raise their hands if they had used the media they named. While there were only a few hands for radio, newspapers, and magazines, there were more enthusiastic responses for television, and even stronger reactions when they saw icons of popular apps. When the logo of Xiaohongshu was shown, for example, some students were excited and shouted out its name from their seats; when the icon for games appeared, there was a roar in the hall. Another typical scenario came up:

Facilitator: What is it? You all seem happy.

Students: Gaming! Gaming!

Facilitator: Okay, tell me, how many hours do you spend on gaming? 

(students eagerly raised their hands)

Student A: Three hours!

Student B: Five hours!

(teachers standing by in the hall smiled)

Facilitator: It sounds a lot. Are you serious?

Student B: Yes! Some people play for longer hours than I do. 

(another roar emerged from the audiences)

Up to this point, the stage for the theme was set. Most students were seen participating in the exchange, either through actively raising their hands or looking at the facilitator attentively. 

Media Diaries

In the next slide, the facilitator announced the mission of the day. The standard script reads: 

Peter, Paul, and Jenny have been very good friends since they were in primary 1. Like you all, they have to take an entrance examination for secondary schools very soon. They knew that they have to work harder in the upcoming holiday; yet they knew that they might mess it up and end up playing all the time. They came up with a plan. They would write down what they do every day in point form, like a diary. They promised to share with one another so that they can keep an eye on the progress of each other. With their permission, we got their diaries. As you are learning to become “Digital Nutritionists”, we would like you to study and analyse their diaries. Please try to identify any issues or problems from their diaries.

The diaries of Peter, Paul, and Jenny were shown on the slides, while handouts were distributed to students. Students received different diaries randomly. As such, when time permitted, students sitting in the same row could form a circle and exchange diaries in their discussion. Although the characters and the diaries were fictional, their media consumption patterns were based on previous field experience, research, and published surveys. To allow for a more interesting comparison, Paul was portrayed as an enthusiast for Maths whilst Jenny was very keen about gaming. The diaries are listed in full in Appendix 1. 

To help students analyse the diaries, another handout was distributed with guiding questions:

1. How would you describe their personalities?
2. What do you think about their use of time?
3. What do you think about their health conditions? What do they need to pay attention to?
4. Do you have any advice for them?

Depending on the actual situation, the analysis of media diaries can be done on an individual or a group basis. Group discussion was conducted in Schools A and B, when students formed small circles to share their insights. In School C, students were asked to reflect on these questions on their own. Group discussion understandably generated a more engaging vibe, with comments like these flying around:  

“Would it be possible that Paul loves Maths a lot?”

“Jenny is really spending too much time on games. It is not good.”

“Yes, her eyes will suffer at the very least.”

“And her grades.”

“But Peter also plays games a lot, doesn’t he?”

Nutrition Labels

As commentators, many students took a rather strict approach regarding media use. After spending about 15 minutes on discussion, we once again called their attention to a new slide. The slide showed four media functions displayed in different colours, namely inform, entertain, educate, and socialise. The concepts are broad and straightforward and students could understand them instantly, yet they were not the usual ways these children related to their media use. Hence, it was the key takeaway for these kids. With a few more examples, we reiterated that these four are currently the major functions of media. 

Here comes the notion of “nutrition labels”. Like food nutrition, information, entertainment, education, and sociality are serving different needs. Each of these four functions was assigned a specifically coloured label. Students were asked to return to the diaries and categorised the activities according to the four functions. Figure 4 shows one labelled diary from School B.

In the first two pilot schools, we distributed colour labels, where students could stick them next to the corresponding activities, which turned out to be rather chaotic and time-consuming. In School C, the teacher-in-charge asked students to bring colour pens instead. The procedure remained the same but it saved the hassles of distribution and label sticking. In both scenarios, students were occupied for about 15 minutes, during which they had to decide what function a particular activity was serving. Generally speaking, primary students enjoyed hands-on activities. The crowded halls were getting quieter when the “Digital Nutritionists” were doing their labelling work, suggesting that they were taking their task in a rather serious manner. 

My Media Diary and Nutrition Labels

In view of the tight schedule, we could not wait for everyone to finish their labelling in all three schools. We also did not have time to check what they had actually labelled. Instead, we went straight to the next session, where each student received a blank template. They were asked to recall what they had done in the previous weekend in the form of a media diary, and they had to categorise and label their activities according to the four media functions. 

It was clear that student performance varied a lot in completing this task. Figures 5 and 6 showed two examples of media diaries: one more detailed and the other rather brief. The nutrition labels were also not necessarily placed correctly. Yet both were examples of how the practice was turned inward, asking for self-examination and evaluation. 

Media Pyramid 

Time was running out fast. In the last ten minutes, we sent out another template with a blank pyramid. We recalled the four media functions and asked students, as “Digital Nutritionists”, what amount of intake they would suggest for children like themselves. We emphasised that there was not a model answer for the media pyramid and we truly wanted to learn from their prescription. Again, student performance varied greatly in terms of the time they needed and the efforts they made. Figure 7 showcases a few examples of media pyramids from the three schools. 

Discussion

A One-Off Media Literacy Experience 

The “Digital Nutritionists” is designed as a one-off workshop for upper primary students in Hong Kong. Its lasting around one hour and being conducted with a hundred students at the same time is hardly an ideal media literacy intervention yet it is the reality we face: there is not any curricular space for media literacy education. While external organisations are welcomed by some schools to teach about different kinds of media, they have to convince schools that they are indeed important and useful in the very first place. The practical constraints and pragmatic concerns are real. This paper has tried to demonstrate what one can do despite these limitations. 

Table 2 summarises the flow of the workshop, with highlights of key learning points. 

A Sustainable Approach 

It might sound paradoxical but we would argue that this one-off workshop offers a sustainable approach for teaching media literacy in primary schools. Amongst all else, the design does not require expert knowledge about a specific media or demand any production skills. Logistically speaking, it sticks to a pen and paper format and can be done in a school hall with simple seating arrangements. In other words, teachers do not need to receive special training. The workshop can be replicated with minimal preparation. Instead of waiting for media literacy education to be incorporated in the formal curriculum or enlisting support from external organisations, schools can find time for this one-hour workshop with existing resources. During the trials in the three pilot schools, teachers standing by observed the flow and a few said that they could also do it with their own classes.

There are three key strengths with this design. First, it utilises prior knowledge of students. Students have learned about food and nutrition in schools, while they have also acquired media knowledge from their everyday use. Putting the two concepts together, students are encouraged to review their media consumption from new perspectives. Labelling media functions as nutrition, the workshop raised awareness about healthy use of media. 

Second, it addresses broad concepts. Although concepts like media functions are simple and straightforward, they are rarely articulated in an era characterised by media convergence. Primary students are used to receiving all sorts of content on mobile devices. By creating categories and actually practising the categorisation, students are urged to pay attention to what they are consuming every day. This encourages self-awareness and self-evaluation of what one uses media for, and how much time one is spending on it. 

Third, it values active and experiential learning. The workshop does not prescribe model answers. Students comment on and analyse other children’s media diaries with their own views. It would be too far-fetched to say that it cultivates critical thinking; yet, it allows space for students to make observations and formulate opinions. Similarly, there is no right or wrong answer for the drawings of media pyramids. It invites students to make their own judgments. The exercise also ensures that the four media functions are repeated once again before the end of the workshop. 

Limitations and Conclusion  

This paper presents the design and implementation of a media literacy workshop out of practical motives. It is hoped that however minimal, it is desirable for primary students to learn about media at an earlier age. Guided by an action research design, the design and implementation have undergone various modifications in the process. Despite this relatively neat presentation, in reality, there have been messy and chaotic moments. The biggest weakness lies with time. Running a workshop with 100 students within 60 minutes was very stressful. All steps were timed and everything was a rush. Summing up from the three trial runs, it would be more realistic to allocate 90 minutes for the talks and tasks. A smaller class size would also definitely help a smoother delivery. 

The major limitation of this study has little to do with the workshop itself, but more about its evaluation. For the present study, no systematic evaluation has been conducted. Given the very short duration of the “intervention”, it would seem challenging to argue for its impact on changes, assuming there are indeed changes. Using the more traditional pretest and posttest design to gauge changes would hardly produce convincing results in this case; we need to develop other valid and reliable measures to evaluate the effectiveness. 

Notwithstanding this limitation, the urgency of strengthening media literacy for children and young people should justify the call to move faster with cultural-specific solutions first and foremost. In Hong Kong, media literacy has been subsumed under the umbrella of information literacy in recent years. Other than risks and dangers regarding technologies, awareness and evaluation of one’s media consumption warrant equal, if not more, attention. “Digital Nutritionists” was designed to be a solution that meets the needs of schools, while also tackling long-term issues in media education. It will be conducted and advocated for more practice runs in Hong Kong and beyond and, hopefully, there will be more empirical evidence for assessing its impact in the long run. 

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References in Chinese

Hong Kong College of Technology (2023)

香港專業進修學院. (2023, July 10). 港專聯同中大發布香港中小學生網絡遊戲成癮及精神健康狀況研究 超過三成學生曾瘋狂打機 近五成學生有中度至嚴重抑鬱症狀 [Press release]. https://www.hkct.edu.hk/index.php/tc/abouthkct/media-centre/press-release/press-release-20230710

Hong Kong Playground Association (2023)

香港遊樂場協會. (2023). 「2023 香港青少年使用網絡狀況及網絡危機」調查報告. https://agency.hkpa.hk/latest/item/zht/upload/1a18be.pdf

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